MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions???????? Page?80? C. ?FASHION?IN?18TH?CENTURY?ENGLAND?AND?FRANCE? Let?us?start?by?considering?dress?and? adornment?in?the?late?C18th.??In?both? England?and?France?very?unusual? circumstances?were?developing.??First?of? all?in?both?countries?fashion?was? expanding?to?embrace?a?wider?group?of? participants.??In?England?the?balance?of? power?had?followed?wealth?in?shifting? from?the?monarchy?to?the?landed?gentry? and?merchant?classes.??This?shift?had? been?underway?for?some?time?but?the? expansion?of?the?colonies?in?the?late? C18th?accelerated?this?process.? Demographic?evidence?confirms?that? more?and?more?people?were? empowered?to?participate?in?what? might?be?described?as?the?luxury? fashion?market.95?In?France?as?in? England,?there?were?a?number?of? 95 While?the?total?number?of?families?in?England?grew?72%?between?1688?and?1805,?the?number?who?were? classified?as??Aristocrats??(predominately?those?with?landed?estates).?increased?several?hundred?percent?(over? 700%)?and?the?average?household?income?amongst?this?segment?also?grew?over?50%?during?the?same?time.?? Income?among?merchants?increased?over?300%?during?this?same?time?(See?H.?Perkin,?Origins?of?Modern? English?Society,?Routledge,?London,?1969.?P.?21.) Figure?2?4:??The?Duchess?of?Devonshire?(by?Thomas? Gainsborough?(1727?1788)?from?the?Devonshire? Collection,?Chatsworth??Painted?in?1787.)?wearing? the?latest?in?dress?(hats?with?ribbons?and?feathers? and?full?dress)?and?hair?fashions.?? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions???????? Page?81? authors?at?the?time?that?wrote?about?the?greater?influence?that?non?noble?men?were?having? on?taste,??including?Mercier?(Tableau?de?Paris),?Abb??LeBlanc?and?even?Madam?Campan? (Marie?Antoinette?s?personal?household?assistant).?Mercier,?apparently,?even?suggested? that?theatres?should?stage?plays? for?the?masses?and?not?the? nobility.96???? ? In?England,?it?is?the?absence?of? any?writing?that?equates?the? fashions?of?the?day?with?the? Royal?Family?(until?the?Prince? Regent,?later?George?IV)?that? suggests?its?demographic? tendency.?In?London?(the?fastest? growing?city?in?England?and?by? this?time?the?largest?city?in? Europe)?more?people?were?able? to?afford?buying?the?latest? fashions?(as?we?shall?see).? ? To?illustrate?and?to?compare?the? development?in?fashion?in? 96 For?a?complete?discussion?of?this?see:??J.?Lough,?An?Introduction?to?Eighteenth?Century?France,?Longmans,? Green?and?Co.?LTD,?London,?1960,?p.?279???289. Figure?2?5:?Marie?Antoinette???la?rose?(1783)?painted?by??Vig?e? Lebrun?(1755???1842)?wearing?the?latest?fashions???a?variation? of?the?pouf?hairstyle?and?feathers?and?elaborate,?full?dress.?? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions???????? Page?82? England?and?France?during?this?period,?two?useful?figures?stand?out.??In?England,?for? example,?there?was?one?person?who?many?saw?as?the?very?embodiment?of?fashion???the? Duchess?of?Devonshire.??It?should?be?pointed?out?that?the?Duchess?of?Devonshire,?like?most? ?fashion?leaders?of?the?time??was?not?a?designer?as?such?but?rather?a?leader?of?fashion;? others?actually?were?responsible?for?the?designs?that?she?wore?and?in?turn,?promoted.?In? France,?this?leadership?role?was?provided?by?Marie?Antoinette.? ? Let?us?begin?with?the?development?of?fashion?in?France.??Despite?the?continuing?influence?of? its?Royal?family,?the?number?of?people?who?could?afford?luxury?goods?was?increasing,?much? like?in?England.??Here?it?was?the?result?of?a?growing?aristocracy?made?up?of?military?families? and?government?administrators,?as?well?as?a?growing?population?of?wealthy?businessmen.?? This?was?to?bring?about?changes?in?the?way?that?goods?were?supplied?to?this?growing? consumer?base.?Discussing?the?growing?luxury?markets?of?C18th?France,?C.?Sargentson? notes:?? ?Although?most?studies?of?consumption?and?commercial?developments?in?early?modern?Europe?have? looked?to?Britain?as?a?model?of?a??consumer?society?,?historians?are?beginning?to?look?at?consumer? behaviour?in?Paris,?particularly?within?the?luxury?market?place.??Whether?or?not?France?witnessed?a? consumer?revolution?of?its?own?has?been?debated....However?the?activities?of?the?mercers??during?the? eighteenth?century?demonstrate?that?retailing?skills?and?commercial?innovations?were?becoming? integral?to?the?practical?organisation?of?supply?and?the?control?and?development?of?demand?97?? ? 97 C.?Sargentson,?Merchants?and?Luxury?Markets:??The?Marchands?Merciers?of?Eighteenth?Century?Paris,?p.?5. MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions???????? Page?83? Now?while?C.?Sargentson?notes?only?that?the?development?of?a?consumer?society?was?made? a?possibility?by?such?developments,?this?author?will?go?one?step?further?and?argue?that?there? was?something?developing?here?in?Paris?that?definitively?marks?the?beginnings?of?a? consumer?society.??As?part?of?this?movement,?the?French?nobility?and?the?more?affluent? bourgeoisie?were?beginning?to?reach?beyond?the?tight?control?of?the?French?crown?for?its? lead.??In?his?article?Consumption?and?the?World?of?Ideas:?Consumer?Revolution?and?the? Moral?Economy?of?the?Marquis?de?Mirabeau,?Kwass?similarly?argues?that?France?was? enjoying?a?consumer?revolution?of?sorts,? even?if?the?Royal?family?remained?the? single?most?prominent?family?of?the?day.?98?? ? In?terms?of?the?Royal?family,?most? attention?was?centred?on?the?Queen??? Marie?Antoinette.???Again,?it?should?be? noted?that?Marie?Antoinette?was?not? responsible?for?the?designs?she?wore,?only? their?selection.?However,?like?the?Duchess? of?Devonshire,?by?the?act?of?wearing?the? new?fashions?she?conferred?approval?and? helped?launch?it?across?France.99?? ? There?are?several?indications?that?the? French?luxury?trade?was?expanding?and?the? 98 To?quote?Kwass,?? ? ??there?is?no?denying?that?the?material?world?of?the?French?expanded?dramatically?in?the?eighteenth? century?,?? ? see:??M.?Kwass,?2004,?Consumption?and?the?World?of?Ideas:?Consumer?Revolution?and?the?Moral?Economy?of? the?Marquis?de?Mirabeau,?Eighteenth?Century?Studies,?Vol.?37,?No.?2,?pp.?187?213.? 99?This?could?not?be?illustrated?more?than?by?the?use?of?the?queen?s?image?in?the?shops?where?she?was?a? patron.?See?for?example,?the?shop?of?Rose?Bertin?had?a?picture?of?Marie?Antoinette?as?did?Madame?Eloffe,? millner?to?Marie?Antoinette.??See:?C.?Sargentson,?Merchants?and?Luxury?Markets:?The?Marchands?Merciers?of? Eighteenth?Century?Paris. Figure?2?6:?The?Ribbon?Seller?or?La?Marchande?de? modes,?by?Fran?ois?Boucher?in?1746.?? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions???????? Page?84? shopping?experience?changing?in?ways?to?encourage?more?people?to?purchase.???We?have? contemporary?descriptions?(for?example)?of?how?shop?premises?were?changing?from?the? crowded?open?booths?located?in?central?market?areas?(which?were?thought?to?be?especially? dangerous?for?women)?to?enclosed?shops?where?one?would?be?served?by?the?equivalent?of? a?modern?day?sales?clerk?or?shop?keeper?(see?Figures?2?6?and?2?7).??Furthermore,?French? shop?owners?also?increasingly?adopted?the?English?custom?of?putting?displays?up?behind? panes?of?glass?and?began?to?develop?a?range?of?displays?and?signs,?to?entice?and?encourage? prospective?clients?to?enter?and?purchase.???Prior?to?this?time?the?wealthy?patrons?rarely? visited?shops,?instead?they?ordered?clothing?made?to?measure?from?tailors?and?dressmakers? who?would?call?upon?the?clients,?take?fittings?in?their?client?s?boudoir,?make?up?the?clothes? back?in?the?workshop?and?then?deliver?the?finished?article?to?their?chambers.?The?working? poor?by?contrast,?bought?used?clothing?or?materials?for?clothes?from?crammed?street? markets?stalls?without?the?benefit?of?windows?or?window?displays?to?separate?the?act?of? purchase?from?the?general?life?in?the?street.100??? ? In?addition?to?the?new?shops?being?a?more?attractive?place?to?visit,?an?unintended? consequence?emerged???the?process?of?the?opening?up?of?shopping?to?women.101?102? 100 One?interesting?attribute?of?shopping?in?these?crowded?market?areas?involved?the?use?of?females?(usually? the?wife?or?daughter?of?the?stall??owner?)?to?use?flirtation?toward?male?customers?in?order?to?generate?sales. 101?J.?Jones,?Coquettes?and?Grisettes:?Women?Buying?and?Selling?in?the?Ancien?R?gime,?in?V.?de?Grazia?and?E.? Furlough,?The?Sex?of?Things:?Gender?and?Consumption?in?Historical?Perspective,?University?of?California?Press,? LA.,?CA,?USA,?1996,?pp.?32???36?and?C.?Sargentson,?Merchants?and?Luxury?Markets:?The?Marchands?Merciers?of? Eighteenth?Century?Paris,?pp.?130??132.? 102?This?in?itself?was?causing?quite?a?stir,?as?there?were?numerous?writings?about?this?being?a?danger?to?society? and?to?morals?in?general.?There?were?also?discussions?about?the?perception?that?women?would?change?the? focus?of?shopping?to?value?more?and?more?new?things,?of?course?this?too,?it?was?speculated,?would?lead?to? disaster.?See:?J.?Jones,?Coquettes?and?Grisettes:?Women?Buying?and?Selling?in?the?Ancien?R?gime,?in?V.?de? Grazia?and?E.?Furlough,?The?Sex?of?Things:??Gender?and?Consumption?in?Historical?Perspective,?pp.?25??53?who? quotes?numerous?writers?of?the?late?C18th?who?commented?on?this?topic.?This?even?included?Rousseau?who? wrote?in?his?text??mile?when?he?noted?that?he?believed?that?women?were?more?prone?to?be?attracted?to?visual? items????from?a?very?early?age?boys?love?anything?that?involves?movement?and?sound?whereas?little?girls?love? everything?visual;?mirrors,?jewels,?cloth,?and?above?all,?dolls.?? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions???????? Page?85? Figure?2?7:??Le?Marchand?de?Rubans,?c.?1700,?Etching?of?a?visit?to?dress? makers?shop?in?C18th?France.?? In?terms?of?impacting? furniture,?one?interesting? study?by?Natacha?Coquetry? analysed?an?upholsterer?s? workshop?bills?to?discover? that?they?did?far?more?than? just?supply?furniture?to?the? elite.??In?fact,?the?bills?from? this?shop?show?that?the? upholsterer?repaired,?resold? and?rented?luxury?furniture? to?a?much??broader?group? than?previously? suspected?103.??In?another? study?by?the?same?author,? ledgers?and?bills?revealed? that?even?though?Paris?still? relied?on?the?patronage?of? the?French?court,?craftsmen?and?shopkeepers?were?well?aware?of?the?growing?affluence?of? Paris?and?invented?novelties?and?launched?fashions?to?enticed?new?patrons?to?their? shops.104? Another?indication?that?France?was?beginning?to?democratise?is?demonstrated?by?historical? studies?around?the?clothes?listed?in?surviving?household?inventories.??Roche?(1996)?looked? at?the?household?inventories?of?households?in?at?least?100?households?per?social?group? (e.g.,?Nobles,?Artisans?and?shopkeepers,?Professionals)?in?1700?and?1789?from?which?he?was? 103?N.?Coquery,?Fashion,?Business,?Diffusion:?An?Upholsterer?s?Shop?in?Eighteenth?Century?Paris?in?D.?Goodman,? and?K.?Norberg?(eds.),?Furnishing?the?Eighteenth?Century:?What?Furniture?can?tell?us?about?the?European?and? American?Past,?Routledge,?London,?2007,?p.?63?79.? 104?N.?Coquery,?The?Language?of?Success:?Marketing?and?Distributing?Semi?Luxury?Goods?in?Eighteenth? Century?Paris,??Journal?of?Design?History,?Vol.?17,?No.?1,?2004,?pp.?71?89.? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions???????? Page?86? able?to?arrive?at?estimates?of?the?relative?value?of?clothing?and?other?non?essential?goods? owned?by?different?types?of?households.105??He?came?to?the?following?conclusion:?? ?By?the?end?of?the?ancien?r?gime,?everything?had?changed.??For?all?social?groups?except?the?merchant? and?craft?bourgeoisie,?wardrobes?had?increased?in?value?much?more?rapidly?than?goods?in?everyday? use?and?for?all?without?exception,?more?than?average?increase?in?moveable?wealth.???(Moveable? wealth?includes?all?items?except?land?and?property,?businesses,?etc.)?? In?Paris,?perhaps?unsurprisingly,?courtesans?were?to?play?a?vital?role?in?democratising? fashion.?They?would?acquire?elegant?apartments?in?fashionable?areas?of?town?and?furnish? them?in?the?latest?furniture?styles.?What?they?adopted,?others?tried?to?emulate.??In? Goddesses?of?Taste:??Courtesans?and?their?Furniture?in?Late??18th?Century?Paris?(2007)?K.? Norberg?examines?the?lives?of?such?courtesans?and?asks?us?to?consider?the?sale?of?goods? belonging?to?the?courtesan?Marie?Anne?Deschamps?(1730?1764).??The?auction?attracted? buyers?from?many?of?France?s?aristocratic?families???a?measure?of?her?considerable?success? and?evidence?of?her?fashionable?status.??To?the?courtesan,?furniture?was?very?important:?? ?It?was?what?stood?between?them?and?sordid?prostitution???to?have?furniture?(?tre?dans?ses?meubles)? was?to?be?above?a?miserable?streetwalker?to?be?free?of?rooming?house,?brothel?and?madam.? 106 ??? In?connection?to?this?thesis,?it?is?particularly?interesting?to?note?how?the?secr?taire?was?the? piece?of?furniture?that?became??de?rigueur?.?First?and?foremost?it?met?the?need?for?security? of?documents;?a?courtesan?needed???a?place?to?keep?track?of?her?appointments?and?letters? from?her?clients?AND?she?needed?to?be?able?to?keep?these?locked?away?from?others.??The? secr?taire?with?its?multilevel?locks?(locks?for?the?door?as?well?as?the?individual?drawers?on? 105?D.?Roche?and?J.?Birrell?(Translated?by?J.?Birrell),?The?Culture?of?Clothing:?Dress?and?Fashion?in?the?Ancien? R?gime,?p.?108. 106?K.?Norberg,?Goddess?of?Taste:?The?Courtesans?and?their?Furniture?in?Late?Eighteenth?Century?Paris?in?D.? Goodman?and?K.?Norberg?(eds.),?Furnishing?the?Eighteenth?Century:?What?Furniture?can?tell?us?about?the? European?and?American?Past,?p.?97?114.? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions???????? Page?87? many?secretaries)?fulfilled?this?need.?This?is? an?area?that?will?be?explored?in?much?more? detail?later?(See?p.?277).?107?? This?was?also?a?period?which?saw?the? emergence?of?a?new?fashion?press.??One?of? the?first?journals?dedicated?entirely?to?the? reporting?of?fashion,?the?Cabinet?de?Modes,? began?its?publication?in?1785.??Not?only?did? the?magazine?carry?advertising?for?local? fashion?merchants?but?commented?on? fashion?and?the?shifting?market.108??? ? Further?evidence?of?the?changing?cultural? scene?emerges?from?the?story?of?Marie? Antoinette?s?dressmaker,?Rose?Bertin.?Marie?Jeanne?Rose?Bertin?(1747???1813)?was?the? official?milliner?and?modiste?to?Queen?Marie?Antoinette.??However,?she?was?much?more?and? many?claim?that?she?was?the?first?true?French?fashion?designer?and?credited?her?with?having? brought?fashion?and?haute?couture?to?the?attention?of?the?wider?public.?In?any?event,?she? appears?to?be?representative?of?one?of?a?new?social?groups?for?whom?fashions?was?all? consuming.??As?the?Queen?s?modiste,?she?found?it?easy?to?sell?her?designs?to?other?women? through?her?shop?on?rue?Saint?Honor?.???In?fact,?this?was?a?woman?who?grew?up?in?relatively? poor?surroundings,?yet?felt?empowered?enough?to?be?confident?in?handling?her?aristocratic? 107?D.?Goodman,?The?Secr?taire?and?the?Integration?of?Eighteenth?Century?Self?in?D.?Goodman?and?K.?Norberg? (eds.),?Furnishing?the?Eighteenth?Century:?What?Furniture?can?tell?us?about?the?European?and?American?Past,? pp.?183?201.??In?this?text,?Goodman?makes?the?comparison?between?a?secr?taire?and?a?modern?day?laptop.?? The?secr?taire?was?considered?modern?for?its?day,?it?s?main?function?was?to?act?as?a?station?to?write?and?store? personal?letters?and?administrative?records?such?as?calendars,?it?was?considered?a?very?personal?object,?and? last?but?not?least?it?was?private.???All?of?these?characteristics?can?also?be?said?of?the?laptop.??? 108?C.?Crowston,?The?Queen?and?her?'Minister?of?Fashion':?Gender,?Credit?and?Politics?in?Pre?Revolutionary? France,?Gender?&?History,?Vol.?14,?No.?1,?2002,?pp.?92?116.? Figure?2?8:?Mademoiselle?Rose?Bertin?by?Jean? Francios?Janinet?1752?1814.?This?watercolour?was? painted?around?1780?based?on?etchings.?? ? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions???????? Page?88? clients???perhaps?overly?so,?making?enemies?along?the?way.?109?As?Baronne?d?Oberkirch?was? to?on?news?of?Bertin?s?later?bankruptcy:?? ? ?The?empire?of?fashion?is?experiencing?a?great?cataclysm.??Mademoiselle?Bertin,?so?proud,?so?high,?so? insolent?even,?who?worked?with?Her?Majesty,?Mademoiselle?Bertin?displaying?on?her?bills?in?large? letters:??Fashion?merchant?to?the?queen:?Mademoiselle?Bertin?has?just?gone?bankrupt.??It?is?true?that? her?bankruptcy?is?not?at?all?plebeian,?it?is?the?bankruptcy?of?a?great?lady,?two?million!...?We?are? assured?that?Mademoiselle?Bertin?will?cede?to?all?the?tears?and?continue?her?business.??110? ? This?statement?illustrates?three?interesting?points?concerning?Mademoiselle?Bertin:??firstly? she?was?important?enough?for?the?Baronne?to?write?about?her;?secondly,?the?statement? indicates?something?of?the?level?of?resentment?that?some?of?the?aristocracy?felt?about? women?like?Bertin?who?has?risen?so?dramatically?through?the?social?rankings;?and?lastly,?this? statement?offers?evidence?of?Bertin?s?unassailable?sense?of?confidence?in?her?fashionable? credentials?and?the?status?it?afforded?her.111?? ? The?shop?that?Bertin?had?on?the?elegant?Rue?Saint?Honor??was?exotically?named?Le?Grand? Mogol.??Her?boutique?had?large?windows?filled?with?all?sorts?of?enticing?displays.?As?Caroline? Weber?notes,?the?windows?of?Le?Grand?Mogol?were?spectacular:?? ? 109?There?are?many?stories,?which?tell?of?Rose?Bertin?s?rather?strong?attitude?taken?when?dealing?with?her? clients.??For?a?few?examples?see:??S.?Zweig,?(Translated?by?C.?Paul?and?E.?Paul)?Marie?Antoinette,?Cassell?&? Company,?LTD.,?London,?1952.,?C.?Guennec,?La?modiste?de?la?reine,?Jean?Claude?Lates,?Paris,?2004.,?M?moirres? de?la?Baronne?d?Oberkirch?(Paris,?1869),??quoted?in?A.?Latour,??Les?Magiciens?de?la?mode,?R.?Julliard,?Paris,? 1961?and??.?Langlade,?(Translated?by?A.?Rapport),?Rose?Bertin:??The?Creator?of?Fashion?at?the?Court?of?Marie? Antoinette,?John?Long,?Limited,?London,?1913. 110?C.?Crowston,?was?quoting?Baronne?d?Oberkirch,?S.?Burkard,?(ed.),?Baronne?d?Oberkirch,?Memories?de?la? Baronne?d?Oberkirch?sur?la?cour?de?Louis?XVI?et?la?Soci?t??Fran?aise?avant?1789,?Mercure?de?France,?Paris? 1989,?p.?187?which?was?quoted?in?C.?Crowston,?The?Queen?and?her?'Minister?of?Fashion':?Gender,?Credit?and? Politics?in?Pre?Revolutionary?France,?pp.?92?116.?? 111 This?arrogance?is?reminiscent?of?the?English?Neo?Classical?fashion?leader,?Brummel?who?would?enter?the? English?fashion?world?later?in?the?C18th.??As?part?of?his?being?a?fashion?leader,?Brummel?took?it?upon?himself? to?be?hyper?critical?of?many?of?those?around?him.??And?although?Brummel?did?not?own?a?shop?or?sell?goods? and?he?was?slightly?later?he,?through?his?displays?of?fashions?and?insistent?upon?a?particular?approach?to?dress? promoted?certain?clothiers?in?the?fashionable?shopping?areas?of?London.??(See?I.?Kelly,?Beau?Brummell:?The? Ultimate?Dandy,?Hodder?and?Stoughton,?Ltd.,?London,?2005. MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions???????? Page?89? ??with?their?artistic?arrangements?of?bonnets,?shawls,?fans,?spangles,?furbelows,?silk?flowers,? gemstones,?laces?and?other?accessories???(they)?set?up?a?bewitching?siren?s?song.??Potential? customers?were?ushered?through?the?door?by?a?liveried?footman?and?upon?entering,??found? themselves?in?a?setting?as?luxurious?as?an?aristocrat?s?salon:?gilded?mouldings?adorned?the?ceilings,? full?length?mirrors?and?fine?oil?paintings?hung?on?the?walls,?and?expensive?furniture?was?scattered? about?among?the?piles?of?damasks,?silks,?brocades?and?baubles?????112?113? ? And?what?do?we?know?of?Bertin?s?sense?of?fashion?and?her?source?of?inspiration??We?know? that?she?worked?with?Marie?Antoinette?two?days?a?week?and?that?she?presented?new? fashions?to?the?Queen?on?these?occasions.?While?it?is?clear?that?Marie?Antoinette?at?the?very? least?encouraged?Mademoiselle?Bertin,?it?is?impossible?to?determine?if?the?Queen?suggested? specific?ideas?to?her?or?whether?they?ever?discussed?design?in?any?way.??Three?observations? suggest?that?she?did?not.??Firstly,?several?sources?suggest?that?Marie?Antoinette?considered? herself?a?foreigner?who?needed?to?prove?her??Frenchness??and?in?order?to?do?that?she? needed?to?emulate?the?French?style?and?listen?to?those?like?Bertin?who?were?considered? ?expert??in?the?field.??Secondly,?a?description?of?the?change?that?took?place?when?Marie? Antoinette?was?introduced?to?Rose?Bertin?and?to?her?hairdresser?L?onard?by?Marie? Antoinettes?s?lady?in?waiting?Madam?Campan,?suggest?a?shift?from?a?simpler?taste?to?that?of? greater?elaboration?and?exaggeration:? ? ?Up?to?this?time?the?Queen?had?shown?very?plain?taste?in?dress;?she?now?began?to?make?it?a?principal? occupation;?and?she?was?of?course?imitated?by?other?women.?114? ? Interestingly?enough,?Madame?Campan?goes?so?far?as?to?suggest?that?this?change?in?style? was?the?cause?of?Marie?Antoinette?s?eventual?downfall:??? ? 112 C.?Weber,?Queen?of?Fashion:?What?Marie?Antoinette?Wore?to?the?Revolution,?Henry?Holt?&?Co.,?NY,?2006. 113 This?description?anticipates?the?development?of?the?Bon?March??that?was?to?open?in?the?C19th.??It?seems? that?the?magasins?de?nouveautes,?of?which?the?Bon?March??was?the?first?example,?started?with?many?of?the? same?ideas?that?Rose?Bertin?used?in?setting?up?her?small?store.?See?S.?Bayley,?(ed?and?author),?Commerce?and? culture?:?from?pre?industrial?art?to?post?industrial?value,?Fourth?Estate,?London,?1989?pp.?45?60. 114 This?eBook?of?"Memoirs?of?Marie?Antoinette"?(Part?A,?also?see?Part?B)?by?Madame?Campan?belongs?to?the? public?domain.?http://www.authorama.com/memoirs?of?marie?antoinette?7.html.?Accessed?on?17?07?2008.? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions???????? Page?90? ?All?wished?instantly?to?have?the?same?dress?as?the?Queen,?and?to?wear?the?feathers?and?flowers?to? which?her?beauty,?then?in?its?brilliancy,?lent?an?indescribable?charm.??The?expenditure?of?the?younger? ladies?was?necessarily?much?increased;?mothers?and?husbands?murmured?at?it;?some?few?giddy? women?contracted?debts;?unpleasant?domestic?scenes?occurred;?in?many?families?coldness?or?quarrels? arose;?and?the?general?report?was,??that?the?Queen?would?be?the?ruin?of?all?the?French?ladies.??115? ? And?lastly,?neither?biographers?of?Mademoiselle?Bertin?nor?the??remembrances??of?Marie? Antoinette?s?hairdresser?L?onard?Autie?mentions?any?input?from?the?queen?herself.?116?? ? If?Madam?Campan?was?right?in?suggesting?Marie?Antoinette?s?fashion?makeover?(to?use?a? current?term)?may?have?been?instrumental?in?the?queen?s?political?problems?then?no?doubt? the?hair?style?that?Marie?Antoinette?became?famous?for?wearing?played?a?significant?role.?117? This?hair?style?was?known?as??la?pouf??and?involved?combing?the?hair?up?and?adding? extensions?wound?around?a?frame?intended?to?create?height.??Following?this?the?hair?was? usually?then?decorated?with?feathers,?jewels?or?pieces?of?cloth?or?in?relation?to?a?special? event?or?particular?occasion.118??Ironically,?both?Bertin?and?of?L?onard?sought?to?take?credit? for?developing?this?exaggerated?hairstyle?that?was?to?become?so?instantly?popular?and?later? 115?L?onard?Autie?was?probably?born?about?1746?most?likely?in?the?south?of?France.??He?first?worked?on?Marie? Antoinette?s?hair?in?1774,?but?was?assigned?officially?to?be?the?hairdresser?to?the?then?Archduchess?Marie? Antoinette?in?1779?and?continued?in?this?capacity?until?the?flight?of?the?royal?family?which?terminated?by?the? arrest?of?Louis?XVI?at?Varennes,?June?22,?1791.?See?L.?Autie,?(Translated?by?E.?Meras)?Recollections?of?L?onard? ??Hairdresser?to?Queen?Marie?Antoinette,?Greening?and?Co.,?LTD,?London,?1912.? 116?L.?Autie?(Translated?by?E.?Meras)?Recollections?of?L?onard???Hairdresser?to?Queen?Marie?Antoinette.? 117?It?should?be?noted?that?C.?Weber,?in?Queen?of?Fashion,?argues?that?Marie?Antoinette?was?orchestrating?a? very?delicate?PR?campaign?through?her?fashion.??While?many?specific?situations?appear?logical?(e.g.,?wearing? masculine?hunting?clothing?and?having?herself?painted?in?this?hunting?gear?while?on?horseback?in?a?similar? fashion?to?Louis?XIV,?could?have?easily?been?an?attempt?to?display?her?strength),?she?does?not?offer?any? suggestions?that?this?was?Marie?Antoinette?s?reasoning?besides?through?the?reactions?of?the?French?people.?? At?no?time?does?Weber?provide?letters?or?any??proof??that?Marie?Antoinette?had?a?strategy?behind?her?fashion? choices.??One?could?easily?argue?that?if?there?was?a?plan?it?was?not?done?very?well?as?this?became?a?symbol?of? the?excesses?of?the?court?(Much?like?the?use?of?private?jets?has?become?a?symbol?of?the?excesses?of? investment?bankers?in?the?US.)??(See:??C.?Weber,?Queen?of?Fashion:?What?Marie?Antoinette?Wore?to?the? Revolution)? 118?For?example,?Marie?Antoinette?s?pouf?was?especially?decorated?following?the?death?of?Louis?XV?in?the?same? year?that?L?onard?arrived.??This?design?was?designated?a?coiffuer?all?gorique?and?it?included?a?miniature? cypress?tree?on?one?side?(mourning?for?Louis?XV)?and?a?cornucopia?on?the?other?(hope?for?the?new?reign).?? Later?to?celebrate?the?completion?of?the?American?war?of?Independence?Marie?Antoinette?sported?the?pouf??? la?victorie?and?later?to?announce?winning?a?battle?with?a?British?ship,?the?Arethusa,?the?coiffure??? l?Ind?pendance?ou?le?Triomphe?de?la?Libert??was?worn.? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions???????? Page?91? so?vilified.?119??Considering?that?both?of?these?documents?were?written?after?the?fall?of?the? queen,?one?would?have?thought?that?both?would?have?sought?to?distance?themselves?from? the?creation?of?the?device?that?became?symbolic?of?the?excesses?of?the?royal?family???but? such?is?the?power?of?fashion.?? ? On?his?first?creating?the?style?for?the?Queen,?L?onard?was?to?write:?? ? ?The?dauphine.....has?a?head?seventy?two?punces?120?tall?from?the?bottom?of?her?chin?to?the?summit?of? her?coiffure....My?happy?ideas?were?realized,?the?pyramidal?coiffure?of?Marie?Antoinette?created?a? sensation?at?the?Opera.??People?crushed?each?other?in?the?parterre....?to?see?this?masterpiece?of? learned?audacity?121? ? L?onard?never?suggested?that?Marie?Antoinette?offered?ideas?(However,?neither?did?he? mention?Rose?Bertin,?except?in?passing?and?we?learned?from?other?accounts?that?Rose? Bertin?did?have?an?influence?on?the?designs?of?the?poufs).??However,?it?appears?the?Queen? did?charge?them?to?produce?something?dramatic?and?was?a?willing?accomplice?in?their? endeavours?and?happy?to?wear?their?creations,?enabling?her?to?set?the?fashion.??? ? In?terms?of?the?fashion,?no?single?style?emerges.??At?one?time?Marie?Antoinette?wore?the? most?elaborate?of?fashions?(thanks?in?part?to?the?efforts?of?her?hair?stylist?and?dress?maker)? and?at?other?times?she?displayed?very?simple?tastes?(the?garden?and?cotton?muslin?dress?she? wore?at?Petit?Trianon,?the?embrace?of?the?Neo?Classical?style,?etc.).?As?she?moved?back?and? forth?between?these?two?modes,?it?suggests?that?she?did?not?have?a?specific?image?that?she? was?trying?to?portray.??However,?it?does?point?to?this?also?being?a?time?of?flux?between?the? two?opposing?modes?of?fashion,?as?well?as?the?idea?of?fashion?becoming?more?diverse?and? more??democratic?.??This?dichotomy?is?neatly?reflected?in?contemporary?debate;?while?some? 119 It?should?be?noted?that?upon?reading?the?Recollections?of L?onard???Hairdresser?to?Queen?Marie? Antoinette,?the?impression?is?that?L?onard?is?prone?to?exaggerate?his?importance?in?the?activities?surrounding? the?creations?of?Marie?Antoinette?s?hair?fashions?as?he?contradicts?several?other?observers?and?in?all?cases?he? is?the?person?who?made?the?decisions.? 120?Approximately?one?inch?equals?a?pouce.? 121?A.?Castelot,??Journal?Intime?De?L?onard,?Coiffeur?De?Marie?Antoinette?,?Sfelt,?Paris,?1950,?pp.?119?122.? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions???????? Page?92? like?Rousseau?wrote?of?the?virtues?of?the?simple?life?122,?others,?like?Jean?Fran?ois?Melon? talked?of?the?virtues?of?luxury?which?provided?employment?for?struggling?artists?and? craftsmen.123??In?any?event,?this?debate?seems?to?offer?further?evidence?of?the?society?of? consumption?that?was?beginning?to?emerge?in?C18th?France.?However,?this?question?of? consumption?is?(clearly)?one?that?needs?further?comment.? ? ?It?is?interesting?to?note?at?this?point?of?this?debate?that?the?issues?that?Marie?Antoinette? have?concern,?in?this?case?hair?and?clothing.??While?there?are?also?stories?of?Marie? Antoinette?also?taking?an?interest?in?music?and?theatre,?there?are?few?mentions?of?her? taking?such?an?interest?in?furniture?design?or?architecture.??While?this?leaves?the? relationship?between?Marie?Antoinette?and?her?furniture?makers?unclear,?it?is?safe?to? assume?that?she?had?a?greater?interest?in?fashions?that?relate?to?her?adornment?and?music? than?she?had?toward?furniture?and?architecture??(a?situation?which?we?see?change?under?the? Empress?Josephine).?? ? 122 Rousseau?being?a?leading?voice?on?this?side?of?the?argument???Rousseau?in?his?writings?actually?discusses? the?act?of?disposing?of?his?luxury?items?and?how?much?happier?it?made?him.??mile?is?one?book?that?discusses? his?ideas?about?simplifying?life. 123 See?J.?Jennings,?2007,?The?Debate?about?Luxury?in?Eighteenth?and?Nineteenth?Century?French?Political? Thought,?Journal?of?the?History?of?Ideas,?Vol?68,?No.?1,?pp.?79?107,?for?a?complete?review?of?the?discussion?on? this?matter?as?it?played?out?in?the?late?18th?and?early?19th?Centuries?in?France.?? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions???????? Page?93? In?both?England?and?France,?there?was?an?increased?awareness?of?the?issues?surrounding? what?Veblen?would?later?call??conspicuous?consumption?.124?Both?countries?were?being? acclimatised?to?wealth?and?consumption?by?its?texts?like?Adam?Smith?s?(1723?1790)?Wealth? of?Nations?which?articulated?the?positive?connection?between?democracy?and?the?pursuit?of? wealth.??However?there?was?also?some?disagreement?concerning?the?morality?of?such? consumption?(Rousseau?advocating?the?virtues?of?restraint?and?Melon?taking?the?opposing? view).??Prior?to?this?period,?dress?was?strictly?regulated?by?class?and?position?in?both?French? and?English?society.??In? part?this?was?probably? because?the?aristocrats? wanted?to?make?sure?they? were?differentiated?from? the?lower?classes.?As?S.? Kroen?suggests,? consumption?had?hitherto? been?restricted?to?a?small? elite?headed?by?the?king.?? In?both?England?and? France?(and?the?U.S.A.)? there?were?sumptuary? laws?which?restricted?the?sale?of?certain?goods?to?the?middle?classes.125??However,?as?the? writings?of?authors?like?Rousseau?and?Smith?demonstrate,?by?the?middle?of?the?C18th,? 124?T.?Veblen,?The?Theory?of?the?Leisure?Class.? 125?S.?Kroen,?S.?Historiographical?Reviews:?A?Political?History?of?the?Consumer,?The?Historical?Journal,?Vol?47,? No.?3,?Cambridge?University?Press,?Cambridge,?2004,?pp.?712?713.? While?there?was?consumption?by?the?very?limited?ruling?families?in?England?and?especially?France?before?the? late?C18th?that?this?thesis?concerns,?it?did?not?spread?far?from?this?group.??S.?Kroen?describes?it?thus:?? ?This?system??based?on?politeness?and?restraint,?that?required?new?possessions?such?as?silverware,? hankies?and?under?garments;?sumptuary?laws?restricted?such?civilized?consumption?to?a?narrow,? hereditary,?social?class?and?thereby?regulated?consumption?to?conform?to?a?set?of?pre?existing?norms? defining?a?static?and?highly?differentiated?social?order.??Courtly?consumption?furthermore?represented? a?way?of?ruling?because?it?demanded?the?ruinous?spending?of?elites?at?court?or?in?their?own?chateaux,? Figure?2?9:?Trade?Card?for?Abraham?Price?another?wallpaper?seller? showing?the?street?in?front?of?his?shop?in?London,?1715.? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions???????? Page?94? wealth?had?begun?to?accumulate?and?such?laws?seemed?increasingly?irrelevant?in?a? prospering?and?upwardly?mobile?society?for?whom?luxury?was?ever?more?affordable?and? increasingly?desirable.??In? England?the?aristocracy?was? being?increasingly?overtaken?by? a?thriving?entrepreneurial?class? who?were?making?fortunes?in? trade?with?the??new?world?:?? ? ?There?was?a?consumer?revolution?in? eighteenth?century?England.??More? men?and?women?than?ever?before?in? human?history?enjoyed?the?experience? of?acquiring?material?possessions.?? Objects?which?for?centuries?had?been? the?privileged?possessions?of?the?rich? came,?within?the?space?of?a?few? generations?to?be?within?the?reach?of?a?larger?part?of?society?than?ever?before,?and,?for?the?first?time,? to?be?within?the?legitimate?aspirations?of?almost?all?of?it.??126? ? Of?course,?there?were?critics?like?Mandeville?(1670?1733)?who?took?a?different?view?when? he?observed,?somewhat?sarcastically:?? ? according?to?fashions?emanating?from?one?undisputed?centre,?the?royal?court,?with?one?arbiter?of? taste,?the?sovereign.??? ? All?of?this?was?changing?and?the?late?C18th?was?the?time?when?this?was?making?its?most?dramatic?shift?from? this?top?down?diffusion?model?of?fashion?to?a?more?diverse?diffusion?mechanism?for?fashion.?? See?also?L.?Brekke,?The?"Scourge?of?Fashion":??Political?Economy?and?the?Politics?of?Consumption?in?the?Early? Republic,?Early?American?Studies,?Spring,?2005,?pp.?111?114.? ? Another?excellent?discussion?of?the?debate?surrounding?the?increased?consumption?of?luxury?goods?that? occurred?in?the?C18th?can?be?found?in?the?first?chapter?of?M.?Berg?and?E.?Eger?(eds.),?Luxury?in?the?Eighteenth? Century:?Debates,?Desires?and?Delectable?Goods,?Palgrave,?London,?UK,?2002?entitled?The?Rise?and?Fall?of?the? Luxury?Debates?and?written?by??the?editors?M.?Berg?and?E.?Eger. 126 See?N.?McKendrick,?J.?Brewer?and?J.?Plumb,?The?Birth?of?the?Consumer?Society,?Europa?Publications,?LTD.,? London,?1982,?p.?1.? Figure?2?10:?Trade?card?of?James?Wheeley,?wallpaper? manufacturer?and?merchant?showing?the?inside?of?the?shop.?? Note?the?similarity?to?the?French?drawing?shown?earlier.??? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions???????? Page?95? ?People...are?generally?honour?d?according?to?their?Clothes...?from?the?richness?of?them?we?judge? their?Wealth....?It?is?this?which?encourages?every?Body,?who?is?conscious?of?his?little?Merit,?if?he?is?any? ways?able?,?to?wear?Clothes?above?his?Rank.??127? ? This,?like?the?writing?of?Melon,?in?France,?stirred? up?opposition?based?on?the?threat?to?the?social? orders?or?on?moral?grounds.??? ? While?the?trend?was?toward?a?more?democratic? approach?to?fashion,?the?wealthy?continued?to? lead?the?way?with?massive?spending?on?houses? as?might?be?witnessed?by?the?prosperity?of?firms? like?Adam?&?Co.?and?Wedgwood?and?the?elegant? offerings?of?catalogues?supplied?by?Chippendale,? Hepplewhite?and?Sheraton.??Without?a?doubt,? England?was?growing?exponentially?in?terms?of? its?wealth?and?was?beginning?to?exhibit?all?the? signs?of?a?society?of?consumption?of?the?kind?we? have?come?to?associate?with?the?late?C20th.? ? The?C18th?for?example?saw?an?ever?increasing?number?of?shops?in?London?and?other?major? urban?areas?as?well?as?new?types?of?stores?with?storefront?displays,?business?cards?and? other?advertisements?(see?Figures?2?9?and?2?10).??Retail?developed?and?the?latest?fashion? became?the?goal?of?every?shopper.??As?with?France,?by?the?end?of?the?C18th?the?experience? of?shopping?had?completely?changed?as?open?air?markets?booths?and?street?sellers,?were? eclipsed?by?elegant?new?shop?premises?replete?with?enticing?window?displays.?128?This?was? paralleled?by?a?shift?on?the?part?of?the?new?shop?owners?who?rather?than?occupy?the?same? premises,?commissioned?separate?domestic?residences,?allowing?them?to?make?their? 127?B.?Mandeville,?The?Fable?of?the?Bees:?or?Private?Vices,?Publick?Benefits,?ed.?F.?B.?Kaye,?Oxford,?1924,?p.?127,? Quoted?in?N.?McKendrick,?J.?Brewer?and?J.?Plumb,?The?Birth?of?the?Consumer?Society,?p?52.? 128?E.?Kowaleski?Wallace,?Consuming?Subjects:?Women,?Shopping,?and?Business?in?the?Eighteenth?Century,? Columbia?University?Press,?New?York,?1997.? Figure?2?11:?Making?fun?of?the?lengths?that? people?went?to?be?part?of?a?fashionable? society.??Mathew?or?Mary?Darly,?British,? The?Ridiculous?Taste?Or?the?Ladies? Absurdity,?ca.?1771.? ? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions???????? Page?96? businesses?more?focused?and?more?efficient.129??While?there?are?some?who?mark?the?start? of?the??consumer?revolution??with?the?advent?of?the?department?store?(like?the?Bon?March?? in?Paris?for?example)?and?mass?advertising?(See?for?example?Jeffrey?(1954)?and?Miller? (1981)130)?there?is?strong?evidence?that?the?foundation?of?this?new?culture?was?established? in?late?C18th?England?and?France.??Mui?and?Mui?s?Shops?and?Shopkeeping?in?Eighteenth? Century?England?show?for?example?how?the?street?market?or?the?itinerant?traders?had?been? overtaken?by?the?shops131.??Furthermore?both?N.?Mckendrick132?and?C.?Walsh133?point?to? changes?in?shop?designs,?the?use?of?trade?cards?and?other?promotional?devices?as?evidence? that?the??consumer?revolution??had?already?started.??Such?trade?cards?clearly?show?how? shopping?was?beginning?to?take?on?the?characteristics?familiar?in?modern?consumer?stores,? even?if?working?class?markets?were?still?of?the?open?air?types?which?still?occasionally? survives?today?with?their?more?rudimentary?displays.?? ? Thus,?in?England,?like?France,?the?market?was?developing?towards?established?shops?with? window?displays,?trade?cards?and?advertisements?in?the?local?papers.?In?fact,?as?pointed?out? earlier,?England?was?providing?France?with?some?ideas?about?how?to?create?these?new? shopping?experiences.??Shopping?was?also?changing?as?an?activity?from?a??mere?exchange? point?of?goods?for?money?134?where?there?was?little?effort?to?promote?and?goods?simply? ?sold?themselves?.135??It?was?becoming?a?social?activity?especially?among?the?women.136?137? 129?One?example?that?was?given?to?support?this?was?that?the?children?did?not?interrupt?business?in?order?to? take?the?trash?out.??See?E.?Kowaleski?Wallace,?Consuming?Subjects:?Women,?Shopping,?and?Business?in?the? Eighteenth?Century,?p.?80.? 130?J.?Jeffrey,?Retail?Trading?in?Britain?1850?1950,?Cambridge?University?Press,?Cambridge,?UK,?1954.? M.?Miller,?The?Bon?March?:??Bourgeois?Consumption?in?Late?Nineteenth?Century?France,?University?of? California?Press,?1982.? 131?L.?Mui?and?H.?Mui,?Shops?and?Shopkeeping?in?Eighteenth?Century,?England,?McGill?Queen's?University?Press,? Montreal,?1989.?? 132?N.?McKendrick,?J.?Brewer?and?J.?Plumb,?The?Birth?of?the?Consumer?Society.? 133?C.?Walsh,?Shop?Design?and?the?Display?of?Goods?in?Eighteenth?Century?London,?Journal?of?Design?History,? 8.3,?1995,?pp.?157?176.?? 134?C.?Walsh,?Shop?Design?and?the?Display?of?Goods?in?Eighteenth?Century?London,?pp.?157.??? 135??C.?Walsh,?Shop?Design?and?the?Display?of?Goods?in?Eighteenth?Century?London,?p.?157.??? 136??C.?Walsh,?Shop?Design?and?the?Display?of?Goods?in?Eighteenth?Century?London,?pp.?171.??? 137?It?was?also?becoming?a?fashion?for?ladies?to?visit?the?workshops?of?the?craftsmen.?One?example?of?visiting? the?workshops?of?craftsmen?are?provided?in?the?journals?of?Sophie?Von?La?Roche?who?visited?Seddon?s? furniture?workshop?as?reported?in?G.?Christopher?and?L.?Wood,?Sophie?Von?La?Roche?at?Seddon's,?Furniture? History,?Vol?33,?pp.?31?34.??Another?example?is?Lady?Shelburne?s?diary?that?gives?a?description?of?Zucchi?s? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions???????? Page?97? ? It?was?during?this?time?that?Georgina?Duchess?of?Devonshire?was?making?her?mark?on?the? world?of?English?fashions.??She?was?one?of?those?described?by?Berg,?M.?in?her?book?Luxury? and?Pleasure?in?Eighteenth?Century?Britain?of?whom?she?observed:?? ? ?The?elites?converted?their?country?residences?or?built?new?ones;?the?interiors?were?revamped? according?to?the?latest?fashions.??New?housing?for?the?wealthy?in?the?crescents,?lanes?and?avenues?of? London?s?West?End,?or?housing?for?the?industrious?trades?people?of?London?s?Clerkenwell?and? Spitalfields?or?Birmingham?s?Colemore?Row?and?New?Street?meant?new?interior?spaces?to?be? furnished.??The?streets?were?new?public?spaces?with?paving?and?shops.?138? ? Georgiana?Duchess?of?Devonshire?lived?in?a?country?estate?that?was?fitted?out?in?the?latest? Neo?Classical?fashion.?She?commuted?to?her?town?house?in?the?West?End?and?took? advantage?shops?that?were?proliferating?in?London?during?this?time.???Always?at?the? forefront?of?fashion,?Georgiana?sometimes?took?her?cues?from?her?friend?Marie?Antoinette? and?in?April?1775?she?took?hair?fashion?in?England?(literally)?to?new?heights?by?simply?piling? it?on?her?head?in?a?three?foot?pouf???Marie?Antoinette?style.??This?was?assembled?by?adding? pads?of?horsehair?to?her?own?using?a?scented?pomade?to?stick?the?confection?together?and? hoist?it?aloft.??According?to?Forman,?this?was?decorated?variously?with?sailing?ships,?stuffed? birds?or?waxed?fruit.?On?at?least?one?occasion?she?decorated?it?with?a?pastoral?setting?of? trees?and?sheep!???This?inspired?others?to?imitate?her????the?Duchess?of?Devonshire?is?the? most?envied?woman?of?the?day?in?the?ton??the?morning?post?reported.139??? ? Another?fashionable?innovation?introduced?to?England?by?the?Duchess?was?the?four?foot? long?ostrich?feather?(given?to?her?by?the?French?Ambassador)?that?she?attached?in?a?wide? arch?across?the?front?of?her?hair.??This?detail?became?a?sensation?in?England???little?wonder? that?many?have?subsequently?drawn?comparisons?between?the?Duchess?and?the?more? plaster?workshops?as?well?as?that?of?the?furniture?makers?Ince?and?Mayhew.??See?E.?Harris,?Furniture?of?Robert? Adam,?A.?Tiranti,?London,?1963,?p.?27.?? 138?M.?Berg,?Luxury?and?Pleasure?in?Eighteenth?Century?Britain,?Oxford?University?Press,?Oxford,?2005,?p.?247.?? 139?A?Quote?from?the?Friday,?7?April,?1775?edition?of?the?Morning?Post?found?in?A.?Foreman,?Georgiana:?? Duchess?of?Devonshire,?Harper?Collins,?London,?1998,?p.?37.?? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions???????? Page?98? modern?Diana?Spencer.?Still?another?innovation?first?presented?to?the?English?by?the? Duchess,?was?the?muslin?gown?called?la?chemise???la?reine.140??Again,?this?was?an?innovation? first?introduced?by?Marie?Antoinette?but?Georgiana?was?the?one?to?introduce?it?to?England? and?the?one?from?whom?the?rest?of?English?society?took?their?cue.???? ? Like?Marie?Antoinette,?Georgiana?was?the?focus?of?numerous?newspaper?articles? (sometimes?supporting?her,?sometimes?critical?of?her?behaviour)?indicating?the?influence? she?had?over?society.?141??However,?while?the?Duchess?of?Devonshire?was?considered?a? fashion?leader?in?England,?she?was?not?wholly?responsible?for?the?fashionable?ideas?that?she? introduced.??As?we?have?seen?two?ideas?came?directly?from?her?friend?in?France???Marie? Antoinette.??The?two?of?them?shared?interests?in?dress?and?fashion?and?they?frequently? communicated?with?each?other142.? ? Despite?Georgina?s?deference?toward?Marie?Antoinette,?there?were?two?factors?that? suggested?that?France?was?less?advanced?in?terms?of?its?consumerism,?relative?to?England.?? First?of?all,?it?appears?that?in?France,?there?was?a?great?separation?between?the?wealthy?and? the?poorer?classes?of?society.143??France?was?a?society?in?which??you?go?at?once?from? beggary?to?profusion?.144??In?England?the?situation?was?different;?society?was?more? equitable?and?wealth?more?democratic.??Without?a?doubt?what?contributed?to?this?was?the? fantastic?growth?in?London?s?population,?especially?relative?to?Paris?s?population?changes.??? At?this?point?in?time?only?2.5%?of?Frances?population?lived?in?Paris,?a?percentage?which? remained?fairly?constant?from?1650?to?1800.??In?London,?on?the?other?hand,?the?proportion? of?England?s?overall?population?grew?from?7%?to?11%.??In?addition?to?this,?many?more?were? exposed?to?London?society?and?an?estimated?5%?of?the?population?outside?of?London?visited? 140?A.?Foreman,??Georgiana:??Duchess?of?Devonshire,?Harper?Collins,?London,?1998,?p.?176.? 141?A.?Foreman,??Georgiana:??Duchess?of?Devonshire.? 142 A.?Foreman,?Georgiana:??Duchess?of?Devonshire,?pp.?40?41,?70?? 143 Most?suggest?that?there?were?three?distinct?groups?in?French?society?at?the?time?(excluding?the?Royal? family?which?rose?above?all?others)?these?were:?the?Nobles?(made?up?of?government?office?holders/ministers? and?the?military?leaders),?and?the?Church?and?everyone?else.??See?M.?Bartholomew,?D.?Hall?and?A.?Lentin,?The? Enlightenment,?The?Open?University,?Milton?Keynes,?UK.,?1992?PP?417??426. 144 N.?McKendrick,?J.?Brewer?and?J.?Plumb,?The?Birth?of?the?Consumer?Society,?p.?20. MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions???????? Page?99? it?at?some?point.145??In?their?article,?Sites?of?Consumption:?The?Display?of?Goods?in?Provincial? Shops?in?Eighteenth?Century?England,?A.?Hann?and?J.?Stobart?also?argue?that?throughout? England?(in?rural?small?towns,?as?well?as?large?cities?like?Bristol)?attractive?new?stores?were? opening?up?to?cater?for?the?increasing?material?aspirations?of?a?prospering?nation.146?? ? However,?although?England?was?probably?further?ahead?in?the?creation?of?a?consumer? society?which?regarded?fashion?as?an?extremely?important?activity,?France?was?not?far? behind.??Each?had?its?fashion?leaders,?both?were?developing?new?types?of?shops?that? catered?for?the?followers?of?fashion.?These?shops?were?developing?the?kind?of?marketing? techniques?with?which?we?are?now?all?too?familiar.?As?a?result,?more?and?more?people?were? drawn?into?the?fashion?s?increasingly?democratic?empire.??? ? D. Fashionable?Furniture? ? To?look?at?the?furniture?fashions?of?the?late?C18th,?we?need?to?understand?something?about? the?history?of?furniture?styles?and?the?approaches?to?making?furniture.??Following?this?will? be?a?discussion?around?the?Neo?Classical?style?that?emerged?as?the?preferred?style?in?the? late?C18th.?? ? Emerging?from?the?Middle?Ages,?furniture?in?both?England?and?France?went?through?a?series? of?changes,?reflecting?the?perceived?needs,?skill?sets?and?fashions?of?the?day.?To?begin?with? there?was?probably?no?real?concept?of?style?or?fashion?when?it?came?to?furniture?for?most? people.147? ? 145?N.?McKendrick,?J.?Brewer?and?J.?Plumb,?The?Birth?of?the?Consumer?Society,?pp.20?21.? 146 A.?Hann?and?J.?Stobart,??Sites?of?Consumption:?The?Display?of?Goods?in?Provincial?Shops?in?Eighteenth? Century?England,?Cultural?and?Social?History,?Volume?2,?Number?2,?2005,?pp.?165?188. 147 This?is?not?to?say?that?the?furniture?was?devoid?of?design?or?decoration.??However,?this?only?suggests?that?it? was?not?as?strong?of?a?focus?of?the?furniture?make?s?attention.??Furthermore,?the?viewpoint?that?it?was? constructional?suggests?that?there?was?little?effort?to?hide?the?constructional?elements.??Dovetail?joints?were? visible,?dowels?that?held?pieces?in?their?place?were?visible,?hinges?were?clearly?visible,?etc.??In?fact,?in?many? cases,?the?constructional?elements?were?made?part?of?the?decoration.??The?decorative?elements?usually?took? the?form?of?carvings?and?paintings,?and?sometimes?inlay?work.