MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions?? ?Page?100? Even?for?elite?groups,?fashions?in?furniture?were?very?limited?as?much?of?the?furniture?was? purely?functional.??In?both?countries,?most?furniture?was?made?by?local?carpenters,?using? only?materials?and?tools?that?were?close?at?hand.?148?Furniture?was?simple,?often?making?use? of?a?boarded?construction.??Beds,?for?example,?were?frequently?made?as?part?of?the?building? structure??and?completely?enclosed?almost?like?small?private?rooms.??Similarly?chairs?and? benches?were?frequently?incorporated?within?the?walls?or?doors.149??H.?Cescinsky,?in?the? introduction?to?English?Furniture?of?the?Eighteenth?Century?described?this?early?furniture?as? ?constructional??in?that?how?it?was?made?was?readily?apparent?and?few?attempts?were?made? to?hide?the?tenon?and?pegged?joints?that?were?employed?in?the?construction?of?most? furniture.150? ? Much?of?the?furniture?used?by?the?Royal?families?in?both?countries?tended?to?be?equally? basic?in?its?construction?and?designs.?The?decoration?leaned?toward?the?use?of?carving?and? inlay,?frequently?with?different?materials?such?as?ivory,?stones?or?marble.??? ? During?the?second?half?of?the?C15th,?the?use?of?these?simple?structures?started?to?be? replaced?by?joined?construction?techniques?using?mortise?and?tenon?joints;?which?marked? the?beginning?of?the?development?of?a?range?of?technologies?that?were?to?allow?for?the? making?of?more?complex?and?more?fashionable?furniture?in?the?C18th.??For?example?the?use? of?veneers?was??rediscovered??in?the?middle?of?the?C17th?and?the?use?of?the?wood?as?a? decorative?element?became?more?important.??As?technologies?improved?and?became?more? complex,?so?did?the?skills?that?were?needed.??During?this?period?of?increased?complexity? there?was?a?need?for?a?separation?of?the?skills.???From?the?carpenter?emerged,?the?turner,? the?cabinetmaker,?the?joiner,?the?carver,?and?the?upholsterer.151??Also?during?this?time?more? and?more?materials?were?coming?from?the?newly?explored?areas?such?as?the?Americas,?Asia? 148 For?example?in?France?the?furniture?makers?were?part?of?the?wood?workers?guilds?before?the?C13th.?? During?1290,?these?were?split?into?two?sets,?the?carpenters?and?the?huchiers?(Chest?makers)?L.?Auslander,? Taste?and?Power,?Furnishing?Modern?France,?p.?78.? 149?J.?Cloag,?A?Social?History?of?Furniture?Design;?from?B.C.?1300?to?A.D.?1960,?Cassell,?London,?1966,?pp.?2???3.? 150?H.?Cescinsky,?English?Furniture?of?the?Eighteenth?Century,?George?Sadler?&?Company,?Limited,?London,? 1909.? 151?J.?Cloag,?A?Social?History?of?Furniture?Design;?from?B.C.?1300?to?A.D.?1960,?p.?16.? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions?? ?Page?101? and?Africa.??Thus,?the?craftsmanship?to?make?furniture?with?different?kinds?of?joints?and?to? piece?together?more?complex?structures,?as?well?as?the?availability?of?a?greater?variety?of? materials?from?other?countries,?set?the?stage?for?the?creation?of?more?fashionable?pieces?of? furniture.??? ? Other?changes?were?also?occurring?that?would?allow?for?greater?attention?being?paid?to? furniture.??Society,?and?in?particular?the?ruling?elite?were?becoming?more?stable.?152??It? became?more?practical?to?own?larger?pieces?of?furniture?that?were?more?decorative?and? more?complicated,?to?meet?their?changing?needs.??For?example?Instead?of?portable?X?frame? chairs,?more?comfortable?chairs?with?cushions?emerged.??There?was?a?greater?need?for? permanent?storage???as?a?result?wardrobes,?and?later?commodes?or?chest?of?drawers?were? developed.?? ? As?furniture?became?more?sophisticated,?it?also?began?to?reflect?a?range?of?design? influences.153??Most?of?these?influences?were?derived?from?the?architectural?styles?of?the? day,?beginning?with?the?Gothic.154??However,?by?the?C18th,?the?major?shifts?seemed?to?be? away?from?the?Gothic?and?increasingly?towards?classically?influenced?design.155?? In?terms?of?furniture,?decoration?became?increasingly?sophisticated?and?made?increasing? use?of?inlay?and?marquetry?work?and?the?refined?methods?that?were?to?reach?their? apotheosis?in?the?late?C18th.??Joints?became?more?discrete.?Materials?would?change?and? 152?During?medieval?times?noble?families?were?required?to?travel?frequently?from?place?to?place?in?order?to?rule? their?territories.??Thus?much?of?the??furniture??that?was?made?was?designed?to?be?carried?from?location?to? location?(cases,?writing?boxes,?folding?chairs,?etc.).??This?is?why?the?French,?Italian?and?German?words?for? furniture?are?related?to?the?same?root?word?as??mobile??(for?example?in?French?the?word?for?furniture?is? meubles)?because?they?were?to?be?moved?from?place?to?place.?Examples?of?these?include?the?folding??x?frame?? chairs,?chests?with?locks,?and?portable?writing?tables.? 153?There?were?differences?in?how?furniture?fashions?were?operationalized.??Primarily?these?differences?were? driven?by?the?very?limited?group?of?people?who?could?afford?to?consider?this?luxury.??Given?this?limited? population?to?buy?the?furniture,?there?was?no?real?system?for?making?and?selling?furniture?to?a?larger? population.?For?example,?there?were?no?stores?with?displays,?or?people?designing?furniture?catalogues.??? 154?See?J.?Morley,?The?History?of?Furniture,?Little?Brown?&?Company,?London,?1999.?? 155?J.?Morley,?The?History?of?Furniture,?1999.? ? More?specifically,?starting?with?the?Middle?Ages;?furniture?designs?were?to?move?from?Byzantine,?to?the?Gothic? design,?early?Italian?Renaissance,?Baroque,?and?finally?into?the?classical?styles,?followed?by?Rococo?and?finally? Neo?Classical. MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions?? ?Page?102? timbers?become?more?diverse,?making?use?of?exotic?woods?like?mahogany,?black?walnut,? ebony,?satinwood?and?tulipwood;?imported?from?the?far?east,?Africa?and?America.????England? would?begin?to?import?a?better?quality?oak?and?deal?from?Europe?then?it?would?start? importing?from?other?parts?of?the?world.?The?growing?sophistication?of?European?society? saw?furniture?types?expanded?from?simple?tables,?chairs,?and?chests/boxes?for?storage?to? include?a?much?broader?range?of?tables?and?chairs,?a?much?greater?variety?of?upholstery?and? an?increased?choice?of?cabinets?and?cupboards?with?more?and?more?complexities?in?their? design?and?function.??? ? When?did?furniture?begin?to?become?fashionable?in?a?way?we?might?recognise?today??As? one?might?imagine,?there?is?no?definitive?answer?to?this?question.??As?some?fashion?theorists? argue,?there?were?probably?always?elements?of??fashion??present?but?not?its?broad? application.?Nor?did?the?infrastructure?needed?for?fashions?to?circulate?amongst?a?broader? population?exist.?However,?even?in?earlier?times,?there?were?recognisably?different?design? influences?at?play;?some?(inter)national,?some?local.??Further,?there?were?centres?of? influence???the?royal?courts?and?(to?a?lesser?extent)?ecclesiastical?courts.???While?this?is?all? very?general,?what?we?do?know?is?that?the?period?from?the?late?C17th?to?the?late?C18th?saw?a? remarkable?growth?of?wealth?across?society?that?was?to?result?in?a?sea?change?in?the?way? people?purchased?furniture?and?came?to?think?of?it?in?terms?other?than?utility???of?being? fashionable?in?and?of?itself.? ? As?noted?above,?the?way?people?shopped?became?a?great?deal?more?sophisticated?and? there?was?an?increase?in?the?number?of?people?involved?in?the?making?and?buying?of?luxury? furniture.??Clearly,?a?much?broader?group?became?involved?in?the?promotion?(to?use?a?more? modern?word)?of?furniture?styles.??One?significant?step?in?the?development?of?furniture?as?a? fashionable?product?was?the?introduction?of?books?on?the?subject???1737?marking?the?date? of?the?first?known?text.?156??Written?by?the?architect?Jean?Fran?ois?Blondel?in?France?and? titled?De?la?distribution?des?maisons?de?plaisance?et?de?la?decoration?des?edifices?en?general,? 156?Literally?this?translates?to??the?distribution?of?country?houses?and?decoration?of?buildings?in?general??but? essentially?this?was?about?the?decoration?of?houses?and?this?included?furniture?as?a?way?to?decorate?buildings.?? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions?? ?Page?103? this?document?was?not?eclipsed?in?France?until?1761?when?Roubo??L?art?du?menuisier?was? published?with?support?of?the?French?Academy?of?Sciences.??By?1761?England?had?a?number? of?books?that?discussed?furniture?with?the?most?well?known?being?Chippendale?s? remarkable?The?Gentleman?and?Cabinet?Maker?s?Director,?first?published?in?1754.157?? Chippendale?s?Director?served?to?both?advertise?his?services?and?provide?a?catalogue?and?its? popularity?suggests?that?furniture?had?finally?come?of?age?in?terms?of?being?thought?of?as? more?than?a?utilitarian?convenience.158??? During?the?C18th,?although?architects?did?not?usually?design?furniture,?it?was?architecture? that?provided?the?inspiration?for?both?furniture?designs?and?decoration???as?the?preface?to? Chippendale?s?Director?testifies.??As?France?and?England?became?increasingly?fascinated? with?the?classical?architecture?of?Greece?and?Rome?and?the?Neo?Classical?Revival?began?to? gather?pace,?the?fascination?that?was?to?transform?the?architectural?landscape?of?England? and?France,?was?to?impact?just?as?dramatically?on?its?interiors?and?furniture.? ? Let?us?consider?England?first.??As?noted?above,?few?English?monarchs?were?conspicuous? patrons?of?the?arts.??According?to?Edward?Joy:? ? ?Only?Charles?I?among?English?monarchs?can?rank?with?George?IV?as?a?patron?of?the?arts.? 159 ??? 157?T.?Chippendale,?The?Gentleman?and?Cabinet?Maker?s?Director,?First?Edition,?T.?Chippendale,?London,?1754.? 158?It?is?unclear?whether?or?not?Chippendale?purposely?set?out?to?perform?these?two?functions,?however?based? on?the?furniture?that?he?did?produce?and?the?fact?that?his?name?is?still?associated?with?quality?furniture?attests? to?the?achievement?of?these?two?objectives.??These?books?also?served?to?provide?other?furniture?makers?with? designs?with?which?they?could?make?similar?pieces?of?furniture?and?to?spread?the?design?ideas?that?were? presented?within?the?books. 159?E.?Joy,?English?Furniture:?1800???1851,?Sotheby?Parke?Bernet?Publications,?London,?1977,?p.?183.? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions?? ?Page?104? Consequently?during?the?time?that?we?are? concerned?with,?the?monarchy?did?not?take?a? strong?interest?in?the?accumulation?of?fashionable? furniture?and?King?George?III?(1738?1820)?typically? exhibited?a?preference?for?simple?design?and? things?English.??However,?his?son?the?Prince?of? Wales???later?King?George?IV?(1762??1830)???was? very?fashionable?and?he?adopted?the?French? fashion?when?it?came?to?furniture,?making? frequent?use?of?the?French?Marchand?Mercier? Daguerre?to?furnish?Carlton?House.???But?compared? to?France,?the?English?Royal?household?employed? fewer?craftsmen?to?deal?with?their?furniture?needs? indicating?its?lesser?importance?to?them.?To?fill?this? vacuum,?the?leadership?in?fashion?fell?to?the? aristocracy160?to?lead?fashions?of?late?C18th? England.161??The?progressive?Whigs?who?were? growing?in?strength?during?this?time,?are?thought?by?many?to?be?the?group?most?strongly? associated?with?the?Neo?Classical?Revival.162??To?a?lesser?extent?the?increasing?number?of? 160?These?were?made?up?of?the?families?among?the?200?or?so?in?the?peerage,?the?slightly?over?1,000?landed? gentry?all?of?whom?were?established?landowners?as?well?as?a?large?number?of?the?Nouveau?riche?business?men? and?industrialists?who?were?made?wealthy?primarily?from?the?trade?with?the?new?markets?of?the?Americas,? Africa?and?Asia?and?the?early?establishment?of?manufacturing?companies.??This?was?discussed?in?the?beginning? of?the?prior?section?of?this?chapter?(see?p.?76)?in?that?between?the?late?C17th?and?the?beginning?of?the?C19th,? there?was?a?very?dramatic?increase?in?the?percentage?of?people?who?could?afford?considering?the?purchase?of? ?fashionable??furniture.?Also?see?H.?Perkin,?Origins?of?Modern?English?Society,?p.?21.? 161?There?were?exceptions?to?this?as?some?of?the?wealthy?landowners?did?actively?support?certain?architectural? design?ideas.??One?example?of?this?was?Lord?Burlington?who?was?both?an?architect?and?he?appeared?to?have? provided?both?support?and?direction?to?the?architect?William?Kent.??During?Burlington?s?tour,?he?discovered? Palladio's?Four?Books,?which?influenced?Burlington's?decision?to?revive?what?he?considered?the?architecture?of? Vitruvius?as?interpreted?in?Andrea?Palladio?s?drawings.? 162?J.?Summerson,?Architecture?in?Britain?1530?1830,?Yale?University?Press,?London,?1993,?p.?295?297.?? There?are?some?who?argue?that?the?fact?that?many?of?architectural?books?based?on?the?ancient?civilizations? were?in?the?libraries?of?nearly?all?of?the?peers?of?the?time?that?the?revival?of?these?styles?was?probably??a? political??For?example?One?of?the?most?important?publications?on?ancient?designs?was?Vitruvius?Britannicus,? first?published?in?1715 The?subscribers?were?almost?all?from?the?upper?echelons?of?society?and?included?all?but? eighteen?of?the?peers?in?England?at?this?time.??Thus,?nearly?all?of?the?peers?had?a?copy?of?this?important?book? Figure?2?12:??France's?finance?minister,? Jean?Babtiste?Colbert?who?was?assigned?by? Louis?XIV?t o?be?the?Controller?General?of? Finances?and?head?of?commerce.??As?such? he?oversaw?the?development?of?design? including?furniture?making.?? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions?? ?Page?105? middle?class?households?also?influenced?the?fashions?of?the?day.?However,?it?was?to?be?a? number?of?key?architects?who?would?provide?the?lead?to?these?groups.?As?noted?previously,? it?was?to?be?James?'Athenian'?Stuart,?William?Chambers?and?above?all?Robert?Adam?who? would?introduce?and?promote?the?Neo?Classical?revival?and?set?in?motion?a?fashion?that?was? to?shape?the?next?fifty?years?and?leave?an?indelible?mark?on?the?historic?fabric?of?England.?? In?France,?the?situation?was?different.?As?L?Auslander?suggests,?the?French?Royal?family? purposely?used?fashion?to?exert?their?control?over?the?people?of?France?and?in?turn,?to? influence?the?rest?of?the?world.163?164During?the?Ancien?Regim?,?for?example,?several?kings? of?France?took?a?very?active?interest?in?promoting?the?arts?in?France,?no?doubt?in?part? because?it?was?expensive?to?import?luxury?goods.165?However,?it?was?also?a?political?decision? ??a?way?to?express?power.??The?prime?example?of?this?phenomenon?was?Louis?XIV?(1638? 1715)?who?used?the?arts?to?strengthen?his?position?as?leader?of?France?and?to?exert? influence?abroad.???Louis?XIV?provided?substantial?government?support?for?fashionable? enterprises?through?two?key?people?in?his?administration:??they?were?his?Finance?Minister? Jean?Babtiste?Colbert?(1619?1883)?and?Charles?Le?Brun?(1619?1690,?director?of?the? Manufacture?Royal.166??Together?they?helped?France?lead?the?world?in?terms?of?the?arts?by? establishing?a?centre?for?the?decorative?arts???the?Manufacture?Royale?des?Meubles?de?la? Couronne?at?Gobelins.167??? in?their?library.??See?C.?Fry,?Spanning?the?Political?Divide:??Neo?Palladianism?and?the?Early?C18th?Landscape,? Garden?History,?Vol?31,?No?2.,?2003,?p.?180.? 163?L.?Auslander,?Taste?and?Power:??Furnishing?Modern?France.? 164?C.?Weber?made?a?similar?argument?about?Marie?Antoinette?and?her?use?of?clothing?to?manipulate?the? public?through?her?image?and?how?the?press?sometimes?used?this?image?against?her.?See?Weber,?C.,?Queen?of? Fashion:?What?Marie?Antoinette?Wore?to?the?Revolution.? 165?A.?Mayor,?'The?Skilled?Workforce?in?Paris,?1500?1800',?Magazine?Antiques,?Nov?1999,?as?found?on?website? http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1026/is_5_156/ai_57590140,?Accessed?on?15/05/2007.? 166?All?three?of?these?people,?Louis?XIV,?Colbert,?and?Le?Brun,?were?known?for?their?obsessive?dedication?to? their?positions.??For?example,?Louis?XIV?was?known?to?have?his?first?meeting?at?6:00?am?as?he?was?dressed?and? bathed?and?his?last?meeting?at?12:00?midnight?as?he?was?getting?ready?for?sleep.?(Source:?Tour?of?Versailles,?A? Day?in?the?Life?of?Louis?XIV,?Jan?2002.)?Similar?stories?have?been?told?for?both?Colbert?and?Le?Brun.?? 167?Otherwise?known?simply?as?the?Gobelins,?this?consisted?of?a?large?group?of?workshops?where?craftsmen,?in? different?areas?of?expertise,?worked?together?for?the?crown???artisans?du?roi.? ? Other?examples?were?the?establishment?of?Lyons?as?the?silk?and?textile?centre?of?France,?while?Alencon,? Chantilly?and?Le?Havre?were?to?become?centres?for?making?Lace.?A.?Nietta,?The?Louis?Styles:??Louis?XIV,?Louis? XV,?and?Louis?XVI,?Orbis?Publishing,?London,?1972,?p.?4.? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions?? ?Page?106? According?to?F.?Watson,?transferring?the?tapestry?works?at?Maincy?to?the?small?town?of? Gobelins,?served?two?purposes:?? ?Firstly,?to?provide?suitable?decorations?for?the?royal?palaces,?and?secondly,?by?raising?the?standards? of?the?luxury?arts?in?France,?the?factory?was?intended?to?contribute?to?the?economic?and?moral? ascendancy?of?France?in?Europe.?168? Thus?the?Manufacture?Royale?was?intended?not?only?to?make?France?into?an??artistic?centre?? but?to?use?the?arts?to?establish?France?s?cultural?pre?eminence?on?the?cultural?stage.169?? Stepping?back?from?these?more?grandiose?ambitions,?Louis?XIV?clearly?in?train?an? administrative?system?intended?to?arbitrate?taste?in?France?during?his?reign???which?proved? quite?successful.?? L.?Auslander?argues?that?Louis?XIV?went?so?far?as?to?control?who?might?have?access?to? certain?forms?of?cultural?expression.?170??In?fact,?she?suggests?that?on?one?particular?occasion? when?in?need?of?money,?Louis?XIV?chose?to?melt?down?his?collection?of?silver?furniture?to? sell?the?furniture?rather?than?sell?it?as?furniture?because?he?did?not?want?any?one?else?to? own?such?opulent?furniture171!?? 168?F.?Watson,?Wallace?Collection?Catalogue?of?Furniture,?The?Trustees?of?the?Wallace?Collection,?London,? 1956,?p.?xxii.? 169?There?are?three?points?to?consider.???First?of?all?this?program?in?the?arts?and?design?was?under?the?director? of?finance?and?a?major?concern?of?his?was?to?create?industry,?jobs?and?materials?for?export.??Secondly,?the? making?of?furniture?was?very?similar?to?the?making?of?new?computer?technologies?are?today.??Else?where?in? this?paper,?it?is?mentioned?that,?for?example,?the?secr?taire???abattant?s?modern?equivalent?is?the?laptop? computer.?While?in?this?example,?the?conversation?concerned?the?uses?of?a?secr?taire???abattant?and?a?laptop? (communication,?storage?of?secret,?personal?information).??? ? There?is?another?component?of?this?comparison.??This?was?similar?to?the?development?and?use?of?computers?in? that?they?were?developing?and?applying?new?technologies,?as?people?like?Riesener?were?developing?new?locks? and?other?mechanical?devises,?they?were?using?new?materials,?designing?furniture?to?fit?in?to?the?then? contemporary?lifestyles.??To?use?a?modern?phrase,?the?making?of?this?furniture?represented?cutting?edge? technology.??The?last?point?is?that?it?squarely?placed?the?King?at?the?head?of?the?fashion?hierarchy???he?was?first? to?enjoy?things?that?no?one?else?had?or?could?have.?? 170?L.?Auslander,?Taste?and?Power:??Furnishing?Modern?France.? 171??The?money?that?Louis?XIV?received?from?selling?this?melted?furniture?was?to?support?his?war?effort.?? However,?he?probably?could?have?made?more?by?selling?the?furniture?itself?instead?of?melting?it?down.??The? reason?for?melting?it?down,?instead?of?selling?the?furniture,?was?that?he?did?not?want?anyone?else?to?have?the? furniture?it?is?speculated?that?he?did?not?want?anyone?else?to?have?such?impressive?furniture.?Interview?with? Daniel?Rault?Head?of?Housekeeping?at?Versailles?on?19/02/2008.?? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions?? ?Page?107? Louis?XIV?consolidated?his?hold?on?the?production?of?furniture?by?setting?up?competing? systems?for?its?making.??He?sanctioned?three?groups?that?were?allowed?to?be?involved?in?the? making?of?furniture;?the?Royal?workshops,?the?Guilds?and?finally?the?non?guild?makers? operating?in?areas?controlled?by?the?church.?172??This?structure?was?instituted?so?that?the? king?could?play?one?agency?off?against?the?others?in?order?to?exert?control?over?all?of?them.?? For?example,?the?guilds?evaluated?products?of?the? non?guild?furniture?makers?and?while?the?Royal? family?could?obtain?their?furniture?from?the?Royal? Workshops?they?could?easily?go?to?other?guild? members.?Non?guild?makers?could?become? members?of?the?Guild?either?through?payment?of?a? large?sum?of?money?(a?years?salary?in?some?cases)?or? through?the?intervention?of?a?member?of?the?Royal? family.??The?guilds?were?guaranteed?a?very?strong? position?in?the?market?but?they?were?threatened?by? both?the?non?guild?furniture?makers?and?the?Royal? workshops;?non?guild?members?could?challenge?the? guild?through?innovation?and?lower?prices?for? example.??It?is?interesting?to?note?that?the?three?key? artisans?identified?with?Neo?Classical?furniture?were?all?German?in?origin?and?passed? through?the?non?guild?system?set?up?in?Faubourg?Saint?Antoine.?173? However,?neither?of?the?rulers?who?followed?Louis?XIV?took?quite?such?a?strong?interest?in? these?activities.??Louis?XV?did?recognize?the?importance?of?establishing?his?own?mark?and? 172?There?were?also?the?Marchands?Merciers?who?functioned?to?design?and?market?decorative?items,?however? their?importance?grew?over?time?and?were?not?critical?during?Louis?XIV?s?early?reign.??They?will?however?be? included?in?a?later?discussion?(see?p?163).?? 173?These?were?Joseph?Baumhauer?(??1772),?Pierre?Garnier?(1720?1800),?and?Jean?Francois?Oeben?(1721? 1763).??See?Auslander,?L.,?Taste?and?Power:??Furnishing?Modern?France,?The?University?of?California?Press,?Los? Angeles,?1996.?P.?70.? Figure?2?13: Madame?de?Pompadour? (1715?1774)???the?court?arbiter?of?fashion? under?Louis?XV.? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions?? ?Page?108? sold?off?many?of?Louis?XIV?s?furnishings?in?order?to?replace?them?with?something?better? suited?to?his?own?taste???or?that?of?his?consort,?Madame?de?Pompadour?(1715???1774).174??? While?there?have?been?some?questions?as?to?the?extent?of?Madame?de?Pompadour?s? interest?in?the?arts?(beyond?spending?a?significant?amount?on?furniture?and?other? decorative?items)?she?did?succeed?in?placing?her?uncle,?Charles?Le?Normant?de?Tournehem? and?later?her?brother?Abel?Fran?ois?Poisson?de?Vandi?res,?future?Marquis?de?Marigny?(1727? ?1781)),?to?the?post?of?Directeur?G?n?ral?des?B?timents???the?body?directly?responsible?for? royal?expenditure?on?the?arts.175??In?fact?(as?will?be?discussed?later??See?Chapter?III,?p.?121)?it? was?Madame?de?Pompadour?who?sent?her?brother?to?study?the?ancient?ruins?in?Italy?in? 1749,?together?with?a?group?of?artists?and?architects?including?Charles?Nicolas?Cochin.?As? the?result?of?this?journey,?Charles?Nicolas?Cochin?was?to?write?several?books?detailing?the? early?Greek?and?Roman?architecture,?which?were?to?play?a?part?in?the?development?of?Neo? Classical?Revival.??It?is?perhaps?ironical?then?that?Madame?de?Pompadour?became?know?as? ?the?queen?of?the?Rococo??when?in?reality?she?oversaw?the?start?of?the?transitional?period? from?the?Rococo?to?the?Neo?Classical?era.176? ? Interestingly?enough,?we?know?that?Madame?de?Pompadour?also?personally?took?interest?in? her?furnishings,?seeking?out?furniture?makers?that?were?not?recommended?by?the?crown,? according?to?records?kept?by?the?merchant?mercier?Lazare?Duvaux?and?the?diary?of?the? ?b?niste?Pierre?II?Migeon?(1701?1758).177?? ? While?there?is?no?definitive?answer?to?this?question,?but?a?number?of?indications?that?Louis? XVI?and?Marie?Antoinette?were?not?as?influential?as?either?of?their?predecessors.???Even? though?Louis?XVI?did?recognize?the?importance?of?commissioning?his?own?furniture,?he? 174?L.?Auslander,?Taste?and?Power:??Furnishing?Modern?France,?p.?53.? 175?D.?Posner,?Mme.?de?Pompadour?as?a?Patron?of?the?Visual?Arts,?The?Art?Bulletin,?Vol?72.,?No.?1,?March,?1990,? pp.?74???105.? 176?Posner?was?quoting?de?E.?Goncourt,?E.?and?J.?Le?Clercq,?(Translated?by?J.?Le?Clercq?and?R.?Roeder),?The? Woman?of?the?Eighteenth?Century,?New?York,?1927,?p.?243.??See?D.?Posner,?D.,?Mme.?de?Pompadour?as?a? Patron?of?the?Visual?Arts,?p.?75.? 177?L.?Auslander,?Taste?and?Power:??Furnishing?Modern?France,?p.?67? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions?? ?Page?109? elected?furniture?in?a?Neo?Classical?style?that?had?already?been?in?vogue?for?some?twenty? years.??Marie?Antoinette?did?exhibit?a?different?taste?from?Louis?XV?and?personally? supervised?the?change?in?the?style?of?her?living?quarters?from?Rococo?to?Neo?Classical?in?her? favourite?residence???the?Petit?Trianon.??However,?this?building?had?been?designed?in?the? Neo?Classical?style?before?Marie?Antoinette?took?up?residence?and?it?could?be?argued?that? she?merely?consolidated?the?interior?decoration?by?adopting?a?consistent?style.??It?is?true? that?when?Marie?Antoinette?did?something,?others?followed.178??However,?it?was?not? because?she?took?an?active?interest?in?fashion?or?in?promoting?an?approach?to?design?but? because?she?was?what?the?modern?marketing?experts? would?call?an??early?adopter?.?179??She?was?clearly? interested?in?what?she?thought?of?as??modern??but?left? it?to?others?to?provide?suggestion.?180? In?France,?there?was?also?no?strong?proponent?of?the??? la?grecque?style?as?there?was?in?England???Robert? Adam.??And?while?there?were?architects?in?abundance? in?France?who?had?adopted?the?Neo?Classical?style,? none?were?to?leave?the?kind?of?mark?left?by?Adam.?? There?was?also?another?factor?in?play?as?regards?the? fashion?in?France???political?unrest.??As?L.?Auslander? observes,?the?French?aristocracy:? ? 178?In?terms?of?dress?fashions,?Marie?Antoinette?s?wearing?of?feathers?initiated?a?lucrative?trade?in?feathers?in? France.??A.?Fraser,?Marie?Antoinette:??The?Journey,?p.176.? 179?Another?way?to?look?at?this?is?to?compare?Marie?Antoinette?s?passion?for?both?stage?performances?and? dressing.??While?in?neither?case?did?she?suggest?approaches?or?story?lines,?she?did?actively?support?certain? writers,?directors?and?dress?designers?as?mentioned?before.?In?both?cases,?she?stood?out?in?here?support?for? them.???In?furniture,?Riesener?was?assigned?as?the?furniture?maker?but?he?worked?with?intermediates?(e.g.,? architects,?the?Garde?Mueble.)? 180?Interview?with?Daniel?Rault?of?Versailles?on?19?Febuary?2008.?Furthermore?in?that?conversation,?Daniel? spoke?many?times?that?Marie?Antoinette?liked?and?wanted?everything?to?be?the??modern?style??however?he? was?not?able?to?say?that?she?was?going?for?a?particular?design?style?nor?did?he?suggest?that?she?was?promoting? a?particular?style,?only?that?she?wanted?to?be?on?the?cutting?edge?of?fashion.?Again,?though?secondary?or?even? closer?to?hearsay?as?a?source,?this?supports?the?other?inferences?that?Marie?Antoinette?was?more?of?an?early? fashion?adaptor?not?a?leader?except?in?the?fact?that?others?followed?what?she?adopted.??? Figure?2?14:??Saint?Jerome?in?his?study,?a? 1514?copper?engraving?by?Albrecht?D?rer? showing?the?use?of?a?portable?writing? slope?that?has?been?placed?on?a?simple? table.??? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions?? ?Page?110? ???could?buy?objects?that?closely?resembled?courtly?objects?and?unsettle?not?only?the?social?but?the? political?order?as?well.??181? ?? This?sense?of?political?threat?never?attached?itself?to?the?conspicuous?display?of?fashion?and? wealth?in?England.?? ? E. Writing?Furniture? In?order?to?talk?about?the?fashions?of?the?late?C18th,?it?is?interesting?to?consider?the?growth? of?literacy?and?the?emergence?of?reading?and?writing.??During?the?C18th?both?England?and? France?experienced?phenomenal?growth?in?the?literacy?rate.?Prior?to?the?C18th?few?people? who?could?read?and?write.??The?only?two?groups?who?read?and?wrote?were?the?wealthy? educated?and?the?church.??In?terms?of? related?furniture,?the?church?made?use? of?lecterns,?with?their?slope?and? supporting?ledge?(see?Figure?2?14).??The? court?(which?again?frequently?moved? around)?tended?to?use?small?writing? boxes?that?were?fitted?with?writing? implements?such?as?pens,?inks,?paper,? and?storage?for?documents?(see?Figure? 2?15).?? ? Now?at?the?beginning?of?the?C18th?both? England?and?France?approximately?25%? of?the?population?was?defined?as? literate.182??By?the?end?of?the?century,?this?had?increased?in?both?countries?to?approximately? 50%.183??Concurrent?with?this?increasing?literacy?there?was?an?increase?in?the?variety?of? 181?L.?Auslander,?Taste?and?Power:??Furnishing?Modern?France,?p.?33.? 182?It?should?be?pointed?out?that?that?literacy?is?frequently?defined?in?different?ways.??The?current?definition?of? the?term?is?that?the?person?who?can?read?and?write?is?considered?literate,?however?at?times?it?only?requires? Figure?2?15:??Another?example?of?writing?furniture? before?the?C18th.??This?writing?box?came?from?Henry? VIII?s?workshop?and?it?is?an?example?of?the?portable? nature?of?furniture?during?the?C16th.??? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions?? ?Page?111? furniture?that?was?available?to?people?to?assist?the?activities?of?reading?and?more?especially,? writing.??Mercier?at?the?time?noted?such?new? types?of?furniture?during?this?time.184??By?the?end? of?the?C18th?both?England?and?France?had? developed?a?number?of?different?options?for? writing.??While?England?favoured?variations?on? the?library?table,?the?kneehole?desk?and?the? bureau?bookcase;?in?France,?the?favoured?forms? were?the?secr?taire???abattant?and?the?bureau? plat.?? ? Women?represent?a?special?group?that?deserves? special?attention?at?this?juncture.??It?appears? from?a?number?of?different?sources?that?there? was?a?very?great?increase?in?reading?and?writing? by?women?during?this?period?of?time.??Several? writers?have?focused?their?attention?on?the? increases?in?the?reading?and?writing?habits?of? women?during?this?period,?which?demonstrate?this?and?Turner?s?Living?by?the?Pen?offers?a? detailed?statistical?analysis?demonstrating?the?growth?in?the?amount?of?women?s?fiction? that?was?published?during?this?time.?185??It?is?clear?that?C18th?women?were?writing?more? letters?and?pursuing?more?intellectual?pursuits?as?well?as?reading?more?fiction???if?only?from? that?a?person?be?able?to?sign?a?church?document?or?to?read?simple?instructions?to?have?been?considered? literate.??However,?the?point?that?is?going?to?be?made?is?that?reading?and?writing?dramatically?increased?during? this?period?of?time?and?while?the?exact?numbers?may?be?incorrect,?in?the?current?definition?of?the?word? literacy,?this?conclusion?seems?correct.?? 183?English?Statistics:?J.?Brewer,?The?Pleasures?of?the?Imagination:?English?Culture?in?the?Eighteenth?Century,? University?of?Chicago?Press,?Chicago,?1997,?p.?155.?? French?Statistics:??Evolution?of?the?illiteracy?rate?in?France?as?a?function?of?5?year?long?generations,?born?from? 1720?to?1885.?Data?from?J.?Houdailles?and?A.?Blum,?"L'alphab?tisation?au?XVIIIe?et?XIXeme?si?cle.?L'illusion? parisienne",?Population,?n?6,?1985,?based?on?a?1985?INED?survey?and?on?the?1901?census.? 184?Sebastian?Mercier?is?quoted?in?F.?Watson,?Louis?XVI?Furniture,?Alex?Tiranti,?London,?1960,?p.?20.? 185?C.?Turner,?Living?by?the?Pen,?Women?Writers?in?the?Eighteenth?Century,?Routledge,?London,?1992.??There? are?of?course?a?number?of?other?books?that?relate?to?this?subject?such?as?Ellen?Moers,?Literary?Women,?The? Women?s?Press,?Oxford,?1978?and?Leonee?Ormond?s?Writing,?H.M.S.O.?London,?1981.? Figure?2?16:??Example?of?changes?among? women?as?it?relates?to?writing?furniture.?? This?is?the?Marquise?Du?Ch?telet?(1706?49),? she?was?a?physicist?and?mathematician,?who? participated?in?debates?on?Newton????painted? by?the?female?artist?Marianne?Loir?(1715?69).? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions?? ?Page?112? the?quantity?of?literature?that?describes?female?characters?engaged?in?the?activity?of? writing186.?Evidence?is?also?available?in?many?of?the?paintings?and?drawings?of?the?period.?? An?inference?can?also?be?made?by?looking?at?the?number?of?pieces?of?writing?furniture?that? appear?specifically?designed?for?women?that?emerge?during?the?late?C18th.??In?both?England? and?France?the?custom?for?upper?class?women?became?to?begin?the?day?by?attending?to? written?correspondence?at?a?small?writing?desk,?aptly?named?the?Bonheur?du?Jour?which? literally?translates?as?the??early?part?of?the?day?.??In?England?there?were?a?number?of?small? writing?tables?that?emerged?which?were?specifically?aimed?at?women;?the?Bonheur?du?Jour? like?France?but?also?delicate?bureau?bookcases?and?so?called?ladies?writing?tables.??Most? were?smaller?than?their?masculine?equivalent?the?library?table.?Many?also?incorporated? special?features?designed?to?appeal?to?women,?such?as?a?fire?screens?which?could?lifted?up? to?protect?the?writer?s?face?from?the?intense?heat?from?a?fire.???There?are?a?number?of? examples?of?such?designs?to?be?found?in?publications?by?Chippendale,?Ince?&?Mayhew,? Thomas?Sheraton?and?George?Hepplewhite.187? ? Interestingly?enough,?according?to?both?Goodman?and?Norberg,?the?secr?taire?was?both?the? most?innovative?and?popular?form?of?the?desk?in?France,?even?though?it?was?perceived?to?be? a?woman?s?piece. 188?? ? 186?See?for?example?? ? L.?Ormond,?Writing,?V?&?A?Publications,?London,?1981,? ? J.?Hemloy,?The?Journals?and?Letters?of?Fanny?Burney,?Vol.?V,?Claredon?Press,?London,?1975,?p.228?229.? ? S.?Richardson,?Pamela,?W.?W.?Norton,?NY,?1958?(originally?published?in?1741)? ? S.?Richardson,?Clarissa,?Penguin?Books,?NY,?1985?(originally?published?in?1747).? 187?W.?Ince?and?J.?Mayhew,?The?Universal?System?of?Household?Furniture,?A.?Tiranti,?London,?1762.? ?????T.?Sheraton,?The?Cabinet?Maker?and?Upholsters?Drawing?Book,?in?Three?Parts,?T.?Bensley,?London,?1794.? ?????G.?Hepplewhite,?The?Cabinet?Maker?and?Upholsterer's?Guide,?B.T.?Batsford,?London,?1897?(reprint?from? ???????????1794)? ?????T.?Chippendale,(preface?by?Symonds,?R.)??Chippendale?Furniture?Designs?from?the?Gentleman?and?Cabinet? ???????????Makers??Director.? 188?Except?for?possibly?the?roll?top?desk,?which?while?it?was?much,?more?complicated?that?the?Secr?taire,?it?was? less?popular?as?the?Secr?taire?became?a?symbol?of?the?literate?upper?class.??Furthermore,?the?fashion?leader? Marie?Antoinette?was?known?to?own?several?of?these?Secr?taires?but?only?one?roll?top.?? ? D.?Goodman,?The?Secr?taire?and?the?Integration?of?Eighteenth?Century?Self?in?D.?Goodman,?and?K.?Norberg,?K.? (eds),?Furnishing?the?Eighteenth?Century:?What?Furniture?Can?Tell?us?about?the?European?and?American?Past,? pp.?183?201.? ? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions?? ?Page?113? On?the?following?two?pages?are?examples?of?some?of?the?desks?that?were?being?made?in? England?and?France?during?this?period;?five?English?examples,?followed?by?five?French?(See? Figures?2?17?and?2?18).? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions?? ?Page?114? ? ? Figure?2?17:??A?set?of?English?'desks'?these?types?of?desks?were?some?of?the?ones?considered?for?this?project.??Shown?are? (starting?with?the?top?left):? A.?Mahogany?Bureau?Bookcase?(C?1760)?with?a?slope?front?and?gothic?inspired?motifs?(p.?49).? B.?Tulipwood?Bonheur?du?Jour?(C?1775)?Neo?Classical?marquetry?decoration?in?the?Adam?style?(p.?71).? C.?Mahogany?Library?Desk?(C?1750)?In?Chippendales?Rococo?style?(p.?53).?? D.?Library?Writing?Table?(C?1771)?Neo?Classical?style?by?Thomas?Chippendale?for?Harewood?House?near?Leeds?covered? with?extensive?marquetry?and?ormolu?(p.?73).?? All?pictures?come?from?M.?Bridge,?An?Encyclopaedia?of?Desks,?The?Apple?Press,?London,?1988?(page?numbers?follow? each?entry).? ? ? A? B? C? D? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions?? ?Page?115? ? ?? ? ? ? ? ? ? Figure?2?18:??A?set?of?French?'desks'?these?types?of?desks?were?some?of?the?ones?considered?for?this?project.?? Shown?are?(starting?with?the?top?left):? A. Louis?XVI?Mahogany?Secr?taire???Abattant?by?Henri?Riesener?possibly?for?the?Louvre?in?1780?(p.?63)?? B. Late?C18th?Bureau???Cylindre?of?the?Louis?XVI?period?(Neo?Classical)?probably?made?for?the?Tsar?Paul?I? of?Russia?by?David?Roentgen?(p.?64)? C. Ebony?Bureau?de?Dame?made?by?Adam?Weisweiler?probably?for?the?Duc?d?Orl?ans?but?later?sold?to? Louis?XVI.?(p.?67)? D. R?gence?Bureau?Plat?(c?1720)?Veneered?in?kingwood?mounted?with?ormolu?(p.?30).? E. Louis?XV?Bonheur?du?Jour???decorated?with?marquetry?of?tulipwood,?pear,?satinwood?(p.?36).? All?pictures?come?from?M.?Bridge,?An?Encyclopaedia?of?Desks?(page?numbers?follow?each?entry).? A? B? C? D? E? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions?? ?Page?116? The?increased?use?of?writing?furniture,?not?only?had?implications?in?regards?to?gender?roles,? or?the?education?of?the?populations?of?these?two?C18th?cultural?leaders,?but?it?also? contributed?to?the?bluring?of?the?lines?between?luxury?and?necessary.??As?a?tool?for?effective? commerce,?writing?furniture?was?considered?essential,?but?it?was?also?considered?a?luxury? item??(most?certianly?the?two?examples?used?in?the?case?studies,?Chapter?V?(p.?192),?were? considered?luxury?items.?They?were?at?an?intersection?between?the?worlds?of?unbridled? luxury?goods?and?of?working?world?of?commerce?and?the?gathering?of?wealth.??This?also? suggests?that?writing?furniture?connected?the?worlds?of?the?aristocrates?and?of?the?middle? classes,?between?those?seeking?frivolity?and?those?seeking?something?useful189.?? F. Concluding?Remarks? ? The?start?of?this?chapter?discussed?and?outlined?the?characteristics?that?define?the? mechanisms?of?fashion.??In?summary:??? ? ? Fashion?represents?change.?? ? There?is?a?historical?context?to?fashion,?ideas?are?seldom?completely?new?and?they? are?nearly?always?based?on?prior?ideas.?? ? Fashions?need?someone?or?some?group?to?promote?it.??While?the?historic?model?is?a? hierarchical?and?top?down,?current?authors?suggest?that?this?is?overly?simple?and? wholly?unrepresentative?of?modern?times.?? ? Fashions?go?through?a?definite?cycle?from?its?inception?to?its?termination??? Invention/Introduction??Fashion?Leadership??Increasing?Social?Visibility?? Conformity?Within?and?Across?Social?Groups??Social?Saturation??Decline?and? Obsolescence.? ? 189?D.?Goodman,?produced?an?excellent?recap?of?this?aspect?of?the?writing?desk?in?her?article?Furnishing? Discourses:?Readings?of?a?Writing?Desk,?See?D.?Goodman,?Furnishing?Discourses:?Readings?of?a?Writing?Desk?in? Eighteenth?Century?France?in?M.?Berg?and?E.?Eger?(eds.),?Luxury?in?the?Eighteenth?Century:?Debates,?Desires? and?Delectable?Goods,?Palgrave,?London,?UK,?2002,?pp?71?89.? MAKING?FASHIONABLE?FURNITURE:??Chapter?II???Fashions?? ?Page?117? We?then?explored?how?fashion?operated?in?both?England?and?France.??In?England,? leadership?clearly?resided?with?the?aristocracy?and?growing?middle?classes.?In?France?on?the? other?hand,?the?monarchy,?whose?control?was?weakening,?still?exercised?an?influence?on? fashion,?although?(like?England)?the?French?nobility?was?exerting?an?increasing?influence?on? what?was?deemed?fashionable.?In?terms?of?the?Neo?Classical?Revival,?architects?lead?the? way???the?diffusion?of?these?ideas?will?be?discussed?in?detail?in?the?next?chapter?(p.?118).?? ? Finally,?in?terms?of?furniture,?one?specific?trend?that?stimulated?the?development?of?new? furniture?forms?was?an?increasing?literacy?which?led?to?the?increased?participation?of?more? and?more?people?in?the?activities?of?reading?and?writing?which?led?to?a?proliferation?of?new? forms?of?writing?furniture,?ranging?from?very?small?writing?tables?and?desks?such?as?the? Bonheur?du?Jour,?to?large?library?tables,?Bureau???Cylindre?and?bureau?bookcases.??As?seen? in?this?chapter,?this?in?turn,?had?profound?implications?on?the?emergence?of?new?social? segments?(e.g.,?Females,?the?middle?class)?into?the?centres?of?fashion.???